History of Hesperia (3000 BCE - 1460 CE)

Hesperia, a land associated with the legendary Hesperian civilization of the eastern Mediterranean, has a long and rich history spanning from the late Neolithic to the early modern period. Rising to prominence in the Bronze Age, the Hesperians built a sophisticated maritime civilization that dominated trade and cultural exchange in the region for centuries. Despite periods of decline and foreign rule, Hesperian language and culture demonstrated a remarkable continuity into the medieval period under the Neo-Hesperian Empire. This article provides an overview of the major periods and developments in Hesperian history from approximately 3000 BCE to the fall of the Neo-Hesperian state in 1460 CE.

Prehistoric Hesperia (before 3000 BCE)

The area later known as Hesperia was inhabited by Neolithic farming communities as early as 7000 BCE. These early settlers lived in small villages, cultivated crops, and engaged in animal husbandry. By the 4th millennium BCE, larger population centers had developed, supported by trade in obsidian and other goods. Archaeologists have uncovered the remains of a flourishing late Neolithic culture at sites like Agia Photia and Trypitos.

• Neolithic Anatolia
• Agia Photia

Early Hesperian period (c. 3000 - 1750 BCE)

The Early Hesperian period saw the emergence of the first complex societies in the region. City-states developed along the Anatolian coast, engaging in maritime trade across the eastern Mediterranean. Hesperian hieroglyphic writing appeared, along with distinctive pottery styles. Early Hesperian religion centered on a mother goddess and a bull god. Around 2500 BCE, several city-states united to form the first Hesperian kingdom under the semi-legendary king Minos.

• King Minos
• Hittite hieroglyphs

Middle Hesperian period (c. 1750 - 1180 BCE)

The Middle Hesperian period marked the high point of Bronze Age Hesperian civilization. A unified Hesperian thalassocracy dominated the eastern Mediterranean, with colonies and trading posts stretching from Cyprus to the Aegean. Hesperian fleets controlled the lucrative trade in copper, tin, and luxury goods. Hesperian cities featured multi-story palaces, grand temples, and sophisticated water management systems. Hesperian culture reached its apogee under "Great Kings" like Tabarna I, who ruled an empire encompassing most of Anatolia.

• Hesperian thalassocracy
• Hesperian palaces
• Tabarna I

Late Hesperian period (c. 1180 - 1012 BCE)

The Late Hesperian period was a time of decline and upheaval. Around 1200 BCE, a combination of external invasions, internal strife, and natural disasters led to the collapse of the Hesperian state system. Hesperian cities were destroyed or abandoned, trade networks broke down, and the use of writing virtually disappeared. Regional powers like the Hittites and the Sea Peoples filled the void left by the Hesperians. Nevertheless, Hesperian culture showed continuity in art and religion.

• Bronze Age collapse
• Sea Peoples

Neo-Hesperian Empire (1012 BCE - 630 BCE)

In the early Iron Age, a resurgent Hesperian state emerged based at the city of Maralum and assimilated much of the remnants of the Hittite Empire. Under ambitious kings like Šuppiluliuma II and Arnuwanda IV, the Neo-Hesperians built an empire stretching from the Aegean to the Levant, dominating the region for nearly 400 years. The Neo-Hesperians were strongly influenced by Hittite political and religious traditions, but retained a distinct cultural identity. Their rule saw a flowering of art and architecture.

• Neo-Hesperian Empire
• Arnuwanda IV
• Yazilikaya

Persian and Hellenistic rule (630 - 64 BCE)

The Neo-Hesperian Empire fell to the Assyrians and Babylonians in the 7th-6th centuries BCE. Hesperia was subsequently incorporated into the Achaemenid Persian Empire. Persian rule brought a measure of stability and prosperity, but also a degree of cultural influence as Persian art and religion spread. In 330 BCE, Alexander the Great conquered Anatolia, ushering in the Hellenistic period. Greek became the language of the elite, and Hellenistic cities sprung up along the coast. Nevertheless, Hesperian language and culture persisted, especially in rural areas.

• Achaemenid Empire
• Alexander the Great

Roman and Byzantine Hesperia (64 BCE - 1055 CE)

Hesperia came under Roman rule in the 1st century BCE and became a prosperous province known for its agricultural exports. Christianity spread in the region in the early centuries CE. After the division of the Roman Empire in 395 CE, Hesperia was part of the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine period saw a continuation of Greco-Roman urban culture alongside a resurgence of Hesperian identity, as the Hesperian language re-emerged as a literary language. Hesperian soldiers played a prominent role in the Byzantine army.

• Cilicia (Roman province)
• Byzantine Anatolia
• Hesperian language

Istarid period (1055 - 1460 CE)

The medieval period saw Anatolia increasingly fall under the influence of Turkic Islamic dynasties like the Seljuks and the Ottomans. However, Christian Hesperian culture experienced a final flowering in the 12th-15th centuries under the patronage of the Kurdish Istarid Dynasty, which claimed the legacy of the caliphate. Hesperian served as the administrative language and Greek and Armenian Christians held prominent positions. This Neo-Hesperian cultural revival produced a wealth of religious and scholarly literature. Ultimately, Ottoman expansion led to the conquest of the Istarid capital Damascus in 1460, marking the end of the last Hesperian state. But Hesperian language and identity survived into the Ottoman period among Christian communities.

• Istarid Caliphate
• Hesperian Renaissance
• Ottoman Empire